Table 1 Key principles of complexity science as applied to social systems behaving as complex adaptive systems (CAS)

Fuzzy boundaries

The system is open. Each member of the system is embedded in other systems. Although one member responds almost exclusively to its primary member, the dynamic interactions within adjacent systems affect the interactions within the index system

Internalized basic rules

Each member of the system acts autonomously, driven by instincts and constructs, which has been learned by previous experiences

Non-linear behavior

Small variations in input can cause very significant changes in output. Even when members interact only with a few others, the effects are propagated throughout the system

Attractor-based behavior

Rewarding interactions will produce repeated behavior either immediatelly or after a series of intervening stages. This may result in increased integrity, autonomy, and ideals

History-based, path-dependent behavior

Systems evolve. The past is partially responsible for present behavior. Systems are sensitive to their initial conditions. Hence, the same force might affect systems differently dependent on initial conditions

Unpredictability, tension, and paradox

The overall behavior of the system is not predicted by the behavior of the indvidual elements. The system oscillates between order and chaos. A constant flow of energy is needed to maintain the organization of the system

Adaptivity

The system’s internal structure is (re)organized without external intervention. The interactions are more important than individual actions. The interactions are interconnected and lead to novel behavior. Systems that are simultaneously ordered and disordered are more resilient